RAMSES-WHO MADE FIRST PEACE TREATY IN HISTORY

Ramses the GreatThe Pharaoh Who Made Peace with his EnemiesAnd the First Peace Treaty in HistoryBy Dr. Sameh M. Arab
Ramses II", who reigned for 67 years during the 19th dynasty of the 12th century BC, was known as "Ramses the Great". His glories surpassed all other Pharaohs, and Egypt reached an overwhelming state of prosperity during his reign. Not only is he known as one of Egypt's greatest warriors, but also as a peace-maker and for the monuments he left behind all over Egypt. He was the first king in history to sign a peace treaty with his enemies, the Hittites, ending long years of wars and hostility. The treaty can still be considered a conclusive model, even when applying today?s standards.
Who are the Hittites? Their rise and hostility with Egypt:
The Hittites were a minor nation in Anatolia, who started to penetrate peacefully east and west through monopolizing political power in the Near East. By the second millennium BC, they became a great power that finally replaced the Babylonian state around 1530 BC. They started challenging the Egyptian Empire during its decline under the reign of Akhen-Aton (18th dynasty). International correspondence from the Asian princes in Palestine and Syria (known as the Amarna Letters) were sent to Akhen-Aton and his court requesting help, and warnings of the Hittites growing influence. The pharaoh unfortunately neglected them and never replied. This resulted in Egypt loosing control over considerable territory in Syria when aggressors, aided by the Hittites, invaded. After the death of Akhen-Aton, and the murder (or death) of his successor Tut-Ankh-Amon, his wife (and Akhen-Aton?s daughter), "Ankh-Esenpa-Aton", attempted a diplomatic coup with the Hittites. In order to secure her position, she sent a secret letter to their king asking him for a son whom she could marry and make pharaoh. As this offer was astounding, the king suspected treachery and sent an ambassador to test the queen?s true intentions. In response to her assurance, the king sent his son. However, he was captured and murdered by the Egyptian commander of the army, Horemheb (who later became pharaoh). Hostility between Egypt and the Hittites was further augmented.
The war between Egypt and Hatti:
With the rise of the 19th dynasty in Egypt, "Seti I" began to reestablish Egypt?s power in the Near East. Within the first two years of his reign, he was able to restore all of Palestine and the city of Kadesh to Egyptian control. Afterwards, a short-lived truce was signed between the two empires.
During the reign of Seti I's son, "Ramses II", advances were made against Syria that reached Kadesh one more. The resulting battle is one of the most famous in Egyptian history. It lasted four days, and initially Ramses was losing the battle. However, his army managed to fight bravely until reinforcements arrived, turning the defeat into victory. The Hittites asked for a cease-fire, and Ramses? officers advised him to make peace, saying,
"There is no reproach in reconciliation when you make it."
After the death of the Hittite king, "Hattusili III" usurped the throne from the legitimate prince who fled to Egypt and was granted political asylum by "Ramses II". Hittite documents record Hattusili?s complaint:
"When I wrote to him: send me my enemy, he didn't extradite him. Therefore there was anger between me and the King of Egypt."
While another round of war was on the horizon, both empires were under pressure with the Hittites were facing the reemerging Assyria in Mesopotamia, and Egypt was facing a threat from the Libyans in the west. Diplomatic negotiations took place for two years until a peace treaty was concluded in the 21st regal year of Ramses? reign with "Hattusilis III" in 1280 BC.
The peace treaty:
Egypt?s acceptance of a peace treaty that would end the war in Syria meant that there would be no chance to restore Kadesh and Amuru. However in return for this sacrifice, the dispute between the two countries would end with a clear line of demarcation between the Egyptian and the Syrian territories. Moreover, Egypt guaranteed the Syrians the right to use their Phenecian harbors, while the Hittites agreed to allow Egyptians free passage to the north as far as Ugarit without interference. This was a privilege lost for more than a century.
Two copies of the treaty were recorded, one in hieroglyph and the other Akaddian, and both still survive. Both copies are identical except for the overture, in which the Egyptian version stated that it was the Hittite king who demanded peace, whereas in the Hittite version, it was Ramses who sent them emissaries. The Egyptian version was recorded on a silver plaque presented by Hattusili to Ramses, then copied on stone at the Karnak and Ramesseum temples.
Akaddian Version of Treaty
The treaty was composed of 18 articles. After a long introduction recording the kings? titles and referring to establishment of good fraternity and peace, one article was included to exclude any further attacks on the other country?s territories:
"Reamasesa, the great king, the king of the country of Egypt, shall never attack the country of Hatti to take possession of a part (of this country). And Hattusili, the great king, the king of the country of Hatti, shall never attack the country of Egypt to take possession of a part (of that country). "
Hattusili and his Wife, Puduhepa
Two articles follow that established the mutual alliance against any foreign attack on either country:
"If a foreign enemy marches against the country of Hatti and if Hattusili, the king of the country of Hatti, sends me this message: "Come to my help against him", Reamasesa, the great king, the king of the Egyptian country, has to send his troops and his chariots to kill this enemy and to give satisfaction to the country of Hatti."
"If a foreigner marches against the country of Egypt and if Reamasesa, the great king, the king of the country of Egypt, your brother, sends to Hattusili, the king of the country of Hatti, his brother, the following message: "Come to my help against him", then Hattusili, king of the country of Hatti, shall send his troops and his chariots and kill my enemy. "
The treaty then included three articles establishing mutual collaboration against any internal mutiny or coups in either country:
"If Hattusili, the great king, the king of the country of Hatti, rises in anger against his citizens after they have committed a crime against him and if, for this reason, you send to Reamasesa the great king, the king of the country of Egypt, then Reamasesa has to send his troops and his chariots and these should exterminate all those that he has risen in anger against. "
"If Reamasesa, king of the country of Egypt, rises in anger against his citizens after they have committed a wrong against him and by reason of this he sends (a message) to Hattusili, the great king, the king of the country of Hatti, my brother, has to send his troops and his chariots and they have to exterminate all those against whom I have risen in anger. "
"Look, the son of Hattusili, king of the country of Hatti, has to assure his sovereignty of the country of Hatti instead of Hattusili, his father, after the numerous years of Hattusili, king of the country of Hatti. If the children of the country of Hatti transgress against him, then Reamasesa has to send to his help troops and chariots and to give him support."
To avoid any further dispute, if a refugee flees to the other country, ten articles were dedicated to their extradition. This was the first extradition agreement in history between two nations. The treaty did not exclude any person, and regardless of whether they were "great men", nobles or "unknown persons":
"If a great person flees from the country of Hatti and if he comes to Reamasesa, the great king, king of the country of Egypt, then Reamasesa, the great king, the king of the country of Egypt, has to take hold of him and deliver him into hands of Hattusili, the great king, the king of the country of Hatti. "
"If a great person flees from the country of Egypt and he escapes to the country of Amurru or a city and he comes to the king of Amurru, then Benteshina, king of the country of Amurru, has to take hold of him and take him to the king of the country of Hatti; and Hattusili, the great king, the king of the country of Hatti, shall have him to be taken to Reamasesa, the great king, the king of the country of Egypt."
"If a nobleman flees from the country of Hatti, or two men, and if they don't want to serve the king of Hatti, and if they flee from the Great King's country, the king of the land of Hatti, in order not to serve him, then Reamasesa has to take hold of them and order them be taken to Hattusili, the Great King, king of the land of Hatti, his brother, and he shall not allow them to reside in the country of Egypt."
"If a nobleman or two flee from the country of Egypt and if they leave for the Land of Hatti, then Hattusili, the great king, the king of the country of Hatti, has to take hold of them and make them be taken to Reamasesa, the Great King, the king of the country of Egypt, his brother. "
"If a man or two men who are unknown flee, and if they come to Reamasesa, to serve him, then Reamasesa has to take hold of them and deliver them into the hands of Hattusili, king of the country of Hatti."
"If a man or two men who are unknown flee, and if they escape from the country of Egypt and if they don't want to serve him, then Hattusili, the great king, the king of the country of Hatti, has to deliver them into his brother's hands and he shall not allow them to inhabit the country of Hatti."
"If a man flees from the country of Hatti, or two people, and if they flee from the country of Hatti, and if they come to the country of Egypt, and if a nobleman flees from the country of Hatti or of a city and they flee from the country of Hatti to go to the country of Egypt, then Reamasesa has to order them to be taken to his brother. Look, the sons of the country of Hatti and the children of the country of Egypt are at peace."
"If some people flee from the country of Egypt to go to the country of Hatti, then Hattusili, the great king, the king of the country of Hatti, has to order them to be taken to his brother. Look, Hattusili the great king, the king of the country of Hatti, and Reamasesa, the great king, the king of the country of Egypt, your brother, are at peace."
Fugitives were to be treated with dignity and returned without being punished.
"If a man flees from the country of Hatti, or two men, or three men, and if they come to Reamasesa, the Great King, the king of the country of Egypt, his brother, then Reamasesa, the Great King, the king of the country of Egypt, has to take hold of them and to order them to be taken to Hattusili, his brother, since they are brothers. As for their crime, it should not be imputed; their language and their eyes are not to be pulled out; their ears and their feet are not to be cut off; their houses with their wives and their children are not to be destroyed. "
"If a (man flees from the country of Reamasesa, the Great King, king of the country of Egypt), or two men, or three men, and if they come (to Hattusili, the Great King), the king of the country of Hatti, my brother, then Hattusili, the Great King, king of the country of Hatti, my brother, has to take hold of them and to order them to be taken to Reamasesa, the Great King, the king of the country of Egypt, because Reamasesa, the Great King, king of the country of Egypt, and Hattusili are brothers. As for their crime, it should not be imputed; their language and their eyes are not to be pulled out; their ears and their feet are not to cut off; their houses with their wives and their children are not to be destroyed. "
The 1000 gods of either land were invoked as witnesses and guarantors of this peace in the remaining two articles. Only some of the gods were named, including Ra of Egypt and Teshub of Hatti:
"If Reamasesa and the children of the country of Egypt don't observe this treaty, then the gods and the goddesses of the country of Egypt and the gods and goddesses of the country of Hatti shall exterminate the descendants of Reamasesa, the Great King, the king of the country of Egypt.
If Reamasesa and the children of the country of Egypt observe this treaty, then the gods of the oath shall protect them and their ?."
"They who observe the words that are in the silver tablet the great gods of the country of Egypt and the great gods of the country of Hatti shall allow them to live and prosper in their houses, their country and with their servants.
They who do not observe the words that are in this silver tablet, the great gods of the country of Egypt as well as the great gods of the country of Hatti will exterminate their houses, their country and their servants. "
The borders of the two countries were not laid out in this treaty but were in other documents. A papyrus enumerates the Phoenician coastal towns under Egyptian control, with the harbor town of Sumur being the northern-most town belonging to Egypt.
As soon as the treaty became effectiveness, greetings were exchanged between the two courts, particularly form the two queens, Nefertari of Egypt and the Hittite "Budu-Khebi". Nefertari wrote:
"I hear, my sister, that you have written to ask after my peace and the relations of good peace and fraternity that exist between the Great King of Egypt and the Great King of Hatti, his brother. Ra and Teshub will deal with this so you can raise your look, may Ra assure the peace and strengthen the good fraternity between the Great King of Egypt and the Great King of Hatti, his brother, for ever."
The tension after the treaty:
Despite the readiness of both courts to abide by the treaty, some tension persisted owing to the presence of the deposed Hittite prince who remained in political asylum in Egypt for 10 years after the treaty. Though Hattusili requested his surrender, Ramses refused to apply the treaty in retrospect. This was probably due to the Hittites? refusal to re-adjust the borders between Egypt and Syria to their pre-treaty positions. This, together with the bitterness Hattusili felt due to the arrogant tone in Ramses? messages, continued to create tension between the two courts. In letters, Ramses had to remind Hattusili of their fraternity, and reproached him on their exchange of gifts. Hattusili had send but one handicapped slave as a gift, while Ramses had sent a number of physicians who were in high demand worldwide, along with a substantial quantity of herbs.
As Babel began to establish diplomatic relations with Egypt, Ramses accepted a Babylonian princess among his harem. Jealousy of the relationship between these two kingdoms, Hattusili cemented the treaty 13 years later by offering his daughter to Ramses. The royal wedding was depicted on the temples of Karnak, Elephentine and Abu-Simbel.
Tension started to fade gradually after the marriage, and later diplomatic missions came to include more elite personnel. A visit by the Hittite crown prince was arranged to Egypt, and upon his return with gifts, Hattusili himself accepted Ramses? invitation to visit Egypt. Ramses greeted him at Canaan and escorted him to Pi-Ramses, where perhaps the world first summit meeting took place. Later, another princess was sent to the Egyptian court.
During the next 46 regal years of Ramses II, peace continued and the treaty was respected until the fall of the Hittite Empire. When the king of Mira in Asia Minor attempted to form a coalition with Egypt against the Hittites, Ramses refused saying:
"Today there is fraternity between the Great King of Egypt and the king of Hatti, between Ra and Teshub."
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JuLIUS CEASER-THE ROMAN MILITARY AND POLITICL LEADER

Gaius Julius Caesar[1]

(pronounced

[ˈɡaː.i.us ˈjuːli.us ˈkaɪsar]

in Classical Latin;

conventionally

/ˈɡaɪ.əs ˈdʒuːli.əs ˈsiːzər/ in English), (13 July 100 BC[2] – 15 March 44 BC[3]), was a Roman military and political leader. He played a critical role in the transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire.
As a politician, Caesar made use of popularist tactics. During the late 60s and into the 50s BC, he formed political alliances that led to the so-called "First Triumvirate," an extra-legal arrangement with Marcus Licinius Crassus and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus ("Pompey the Great") that was to dominate Roman politics for several years. Their factional attempts to amass power for themselves were opposed within the Roman Senate by the optimates, among them Marcus Porcius Cato and Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, with the sometime support of Marcus Tullius Cicero. Caesar's conquest of Gaul extended the Roman world to the North Sea, and in 55 BC he also conducted the first Roman invasion of Britain. These achievements granted him unmatched military power and threatened to eclipse Pompey's, while the death of Crassus contributed to increasing political tensions between the two triumviral survivors. Political realignments in Rome finally led to a stand-off between Caesar and Pompey, the latter having taken up the cause of the Senate. With the order that sent his legions across the Rubicon, Caesar began a civil war in 49 BC from which he emerged as the unrivaled leader of the Roman world.
After assuming control of government, he began extensive reforms of Roman society and government. He heavily centralised the bureaucracy of the Republic and was eventually proclaimed "dictator in perpetuity" (dictator perpetuo). A group of senators, led by Marcus Junius Brutus, assassinated the dictator on the Ides of March (15 March) 44 BC, hoping to restore the normal running of the Republic. However, the result was another Roman civil war, which ultimately led to the establishment of a permanent autocracy by Caesar's adopted heir, Gaius Octavianus. In 42 BC, two years after his assassination, the Senate officially sanctified Caesar as one of the Roman deities.
Much of Caesar's life is known from his own Commentaries (Commentarii) on his military campaigns, and other contemporary sources such as the letters and speeches of his political rival Cicero, the historical writings of Sallust, and the poetry of Catullus. Many more details of his life are recorded by later historians, such as Appian, Suetonius, Plutarch, Cassius Dio and Strabo.
Contents[hide]
1 Early life
2 Early career
2.1 Coming to prominence
3 First consulship and triumvirate
3.1 Conquest of Gaul
4 Military career
5 Civil war
5.1 Aftermath of the civil war
6 Assassination
6.1 Aftermath of the assassination
7 Health
8 Literary works
8.1 Memoirs
9 Name
10 Family
10.1 Parents
10.2 Sisters
10.3 Wives
10.4 Children
10.5 Grandchildren
10.6 Lovers
10.7 Notable relatives
10.8 Political rivals and rumours of homosexual activity
11 Chronology of his life
12 Honours and titles
13 Depictions
14 References
14.1 Primary sources
14.1.1 Own writings
14.1.2 Ancient historians' writings
14.2 Secondary sources
15 External links
16 Succession table
//

ALEXANDER THE GREAT !

Alexander III of Macedon,

popularly known as Alexande

the Great (Greek: Ἀλέξανδρος

ὁ Μέγας or Μέγας Ἀλέξανδρος,

Mégas Aléxandros; 356–323 BC), was an Ancient Greeki[›] king (basileus) of Macedon who created one of the largest empires in ancient history. Born in Pella in 356 BC, Alexander succeeded his father Philip II of Macedon to the throne in 336 BC after the King was assassinated, and died 13 years later at the age of 32. Whilst both Alexander's reign and empire were short-lived, the cultural impact of his conquests lasted for centuries. Alexander is one of the most well known figures of antiquity, and is remembered for his tactical ability, his conquests, and for spreading Greek civilization into the east.
Philip had brought most of the city-states of mainland Greece under Macedonian hegemony, using both military and diplomatic means. Upon his death, Alexander inherited a strong kingdom and an experienced army. He succeeded in being awarded the generalship of Greece and with his authority firmly established, launched the military plans for expansion left by his father. He invaded Persian-ruled Asia Minor, and began a series of campaigns lasting 10 years. Alexander repeatedly defeated the Persians in battle, marched through Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, and Bactria and in the process he overthrew the Persian king Darius III and conquered the entirety of the Persian Empire.ii[›] Following his desire to reach the "ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea", he invaded India, but was eventually forced to turn back by the near-mutiny of his troops, who had tired of war.
Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BC, before having the chance to realize a series of planned campaigns, beginning with an invasion of Arabia. In the years following Alexander's death, his empire was torn apart in a series of civil wars, which resulted in the formation of a number of states ruled by Macedonian nobility. Remarkable though his conquests were, Alexander's lasting legacy was not his reign, but the cultural diffusion engendered by his conquests. The import of Greek colonists and culture to the east, initiated by Alexander, resulted in a new Hellenistic culture, aspects of which were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire up until the mid-15th century. Alexander himself became legendary, as a classical hero in the mould of Achilles and features prominently in the history and myth of Greek and non-Greek cultures. He became the measure against which generals, even to this day, compare themselves, and his tactical exploits are still taught in military academies throughout the world.iii[›]
Contents[hide]
1 Sources
2 Early life
2.1 Childhood
2.2 Adolescence
3 Philip's heir
3.1 Regency
3.2 Chaeronea
4 Exile and return
5 Accession
6 Balkan campaign
7 Conquest of the Persian Empire
7.1 Asia Minor
7.2 Syria
7.3 Egypt
7.4 Assyria and Babylonia
7.5 Persia
7.6 Fall of the Empire and the East
8 Problems and plots
9 Invasion of India
10 Return from India
11 Last years
12 Death
12.1 Possible causes
12.1.1 Poison
12.1.2 Natural causes
12.2 Fate after death
13 Succession
13.1 The division of the Empire
13.2 Testament
14 Character
14.1 Physical appearance
14.2 Personality
14.3 Megalomania
14.4 Relationships
15 Legacy
15.1 The Successors
15.2 Hellenization
15.3 Influence on Rome
15.4 Legend
15.5 In ancient and modern culture
16 Notes
17 References
18 Sources
18.1 Primary sources
18.2 Secondary sources

THE REAL TSARISTA-by Madame lili Debn

book was written by Julia "Lili" Dehn, who was a close friend of the last Empress of Russia, Alexandra Feodorovna. She witnessed many of the most important events of the sunset years of the Romanov Dynasty. Her book is an intimate, first-hand account from the perspective of a palace insider and close friend of Alexandra. Lili met the infamous Rasputin through Alexandra and knew him personally. She experienced the events of 1917 and the fall of the dynasty at the side of the Empress This is an excellent memoir to learn more about the Romanovs and life before the Russian revolution. Bob Atchison
Alexander Palace Time Machine Royalty Discussion Forum
Copyright (c) 2008 Bob Atchison. Website by Pallasart Web Design

This book was written by Julia "Lili" Dehn, who was a close friend of the last Empress of Russia, Alexandra Feodorovna. She witnessed many of the most important events of the sunset years of the Romanov Dynasty. Her book is an intimate, first-hand account from the perspective of a palace insider and close friend of Alexandra. Lili met the infamous Rasputin through Alexandra and knew him personally. She experienced the events of 1917 and the fall of the dynasty at the side of the Empress This is an excellent memoir to learn more about the Romanovs and life before the Russian revolution. Bob Atchison
Alexander Palace Time Machine Royalty Discussion Forum
Copyright (c) 2008 Bob Atchison. Website by Pallasart Web Design

THE LAST EMPEROR OF RUSSIA

Part One - Introduction
Introduction
Part Two - Diary in Russia
1914
1915
1916
1917
Part Three - Characters
The Emperor After Leaving Headquarters
Emperor and Empress
The Tsarevitch
The Grand Duke Nicholas
General Alexeieff

Comments on this website should be directed to Bob Atchison

AMERICAN PRESIDENTS AND VICE-PRESIDENTS

Presidents and Vice-Presidents of the United States
PRESIDENT
VICE-PRESIDENT
POLITICAL PARTY
TERM
George Washington
John Adams
No Party Designation
1789-1797
John Adams
Thomas Jefferson
Federalist
1797-1801
Thomas Jefferson
Aaron BurrGeorge Clinton
Democratic-Republican
1801-1809
James Madison
George ClintonElbridge Gerry
Democratic-Republican
1809-1817
James Monroe
Daniel D Tompkins
Democratic-Republican
1817-1825
John Quincy Adams
John C Calhoun
Democratic-Republican
1825-1829
Andrew Jackson
John C CalhounMartin Van Buren
Democratic
1829-1837
Martin Van Buren
Richard M. Johnson
Democratic
1837-1841
William Henry Harrison
John Tyler
Whig
1841
John Tyler
None
Whig
1841-1845
James Knox Polk
George M Dallas
Democratic
1845-1849
Zachary Taylor
Millard Fillmore
Whig
1849-1850
Millard Fillmore
None
Whig
1850-1853
Franklin Pierce
William R King
Democratic
1853-1857
James Buchanan
John C Breckinridge
Democratic
1857-1861
Chart of presidents and vice presidents continues below the ad.
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Abraham Lincoln
Hannibel HamlinAndrew Johnson
Union
1861-1865
Andrew Johnson
None
Union
1865-1869
Ulysses Simpson Grant
Schuyler ColfaxHenry Wilson
Republican
1869-1877
Rutherford Birchard Hayes
William A Wheeler
Republican
1877-1881
James Abram Garfield
Chester Alan Arthur
Republican
1881
Chester Alan Arthur
None
Republican
1881-1885
Stephen Grover Cleveland
Thomas Hendricks
Democratic
1885-1889
Benjamin Harrison
Levi P Morton
Republican
1889-1893
Stephen Grover Cleveland
Adlai E Stevenson
Democratic
1893-1897
William McKinley
Garret A. HobartTheodore Roosevelt
Republican
1897-1901
Theodore Roosevelt
Charles W Fairbanks
Republican
1901-1909
William Howard Taft
James S Sherman
Republican
1909-1913
Woodrow Wilson
Thomas R Marshall
Democratic
1913-1921
Warren Gamaliel Harding
Calvin Coolidge
Republican
1921-1923
Calvin Coolidge
Charles G Dawes
Republican
1923-1929
Herbert Clark Hoover
Charles Curtis
Republican
1929-1933
Franklin Delano Roosevelt
John Nance GarnerHenry A. WallaceHarry S. Truman
Democratic
1933-1945
Harry S. Truman
Alben W Barkley
Democratic
1945-1953
Dwight David Eisenhower
Richard Milhous Nixon
Republican
1953-1961
John Fitzgerald Kennedy
Lyndon Baines Johnson
Democratic
1961-1963
Lyndon Baines Johnson
Hubert Horatio Humphrey
Democratic
1963-1969
Richard Milhous Nixon
Spiro T. AgnewGerald Rudolph Ford
Republican
1969-1974
Gerald Rudolph Ford
Nelson Rockefeller
Republican
1974-1977
James Earl Carter, Jr.
Walter Mondale
Democratic
1977-1981
Ronald Wilson Reagan
George Herbert Walker Bush
Republican
1981-1989
George Herbert Walker Bush
J. Danforth Quayle
Republican
1989-1993
William Jefferson Clinton
Albert Gore, Jr.
Democratic
1993-2001
George Walker Bush
Richard Cheney
Republican
2001-2009
Barack Obama
Joe Biden
Democratic
2009-

THE NOBLE PRIZE AND ALFRED NOBEL

The Nobel Prize (Swedish: Nobelpriset)

is a Sweden-based international

monetary prize. The award was

established

by the 1895 will and estate of Swedish

chemist and inventor Alfred Nobel. It

was first awarded in Physics, Chemistry,

Physiology or Medicine, Literature, and

Peace in 1901. An associated prize,

The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic

Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, was

instituted by Sweden's central bank in 1968

and first awarded in 1969.[1] The Nobel Prizes

in the specific disciplines (Physics, Chemistry,

Physiology or Medicine, and Literature) and

the Prize in Economics, which is commonly identified with them, are widely regarded as the most prestigious award one can receive in those fields.[1] The Nobel Peace Prize conveys social prestige and is often politically controversial

2009-NOBEL PEACE-BARACK OBAMA

for his extraordinary efforts to

strengthen

international diplomacy and

cooperation

between peoples"